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Revision as of 07:10, 11 April 2021

The Stone Quarries and Kokuin of Edo Castle

江戸城の石切場と刻印

Introduction

Everyone, well most Jcastle geeks that is, have marvelled at the immense stone walls of castles like Edo-jo, Osaka-jo, and Nagoya-jo. But, have you ever really thought about how they were built? Where did all that stone come from? It wasn't just found on the site. Who actually built those walls? Stone pilings were used to prevent erosion and to strengthen earthen embankments for a long time. Big stone walls were built by Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, but the Tokugawa took that to a whole new level building bigger and more vast walls than had ever been attempted before. Big keeps, beautiful gates and towers (yagura) may be magnificent to behold, but the strength of any one castle really comes down to it's network of moats and walls.

Tenkabushin (天下普請)

After years of war and strife an unstable peace was brought to Japan with the founding of the Tokugawa Bakufu. In order to maintain that peace (and their control) the Tokugawa kept all regional daimyo too busy to war with a series of infrastructure projects called Tenkabushin. Constructing castles for the Tokugawa was the most famous example, but there were also a number of other projects around the country to improve roads, river ways and some temples and shrines. At some point it came to be called "tenkabushin", perhaps to emphasize the role in the Tokugawa's master plan to control all Japan (tenka), but at the time they were simply called 公儀御普請 or 手伝普請, simply "public infrastructure projects". Sankin Kotai, which is often cited as a way for the Bakufu to force daimyo to spend a lot of money preventing them from raising armies, actually began in 1635 after the stone wall construction of Edo Castle was nearly complete (1604-1636).

The castles built under the tenkabushin umbrella are listed below:

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If you consider this a network of castles controlled by the Tokugawa, it's also a giant wall of defensive structures around central Japan (with a few exceptions for Tokugawa strongholds in the East). The role of these castles was to prevent the western daimyo who were defeated at the Battle of Sekigahara from rebelling or making any major incursions into the rest of Japan and Tokugawa held territories.

Many of the Tenkabushin castles listed above are also famous for their impressive and extensive stone walls. The rest of this article describes the building of stone walls for Edo Castle, but parts of the story are applicable to many others, particularly Nagoya Castle, Osaka Castle, Sasayama Castle, and Sunpu Castle.


Stones for Edo Castle (石材)

Look at the photos below. Notice the white stones on the corner of the left photo compared to the darker stones behind. While walking around Edo Castle, I've mistakenly heard people think the white stones must be concrete to replace ones that were broken, came loose, or were damaged in the war. Actually, the white looking stones are a different type of stone called kakogan (granite) as opposed to the darker ones which are andesite (anzangan). The second photo shows the Edo Castle main keep foundation which is a combination of bright colored granite with a few andesite stones in the front. The last photo is of Osaka Castle which uses much more granite because it is more readily available around the Osaka area. In the case of Edo Castle, the granite blocks are used on the corners because they are marginally harder than the andesite.

Andesite has a wide variety of differing characteristics which make it possible to identify the place it came from. The source of the granite, on the other hand, is harder to identify. There are some stories of stones being transported from the Shodo Island in the Seto Inland Sea to impress the Shogun but this only accounts for a small portion of such stone. Some of those stories and questionable and in most cases the color of stone is actually a little different than the granite found there. To this day, we have some ideas where the granite for Edo Castle may have come from based on the proximity of granite locations to Edo (e.g. Gunma, Tochigi), but the andesite, which makes up the vast majority of stone at Edo Castle, is mostly from the Izu Peninsula. 

Edo stones.jpg

Edo Castle Hirakawa Moat

Edo100.jpg

Edo Castle Main Keep Foundation

Osaka22.jpg

Osaka Castle Honmaru Bailey


Stone Wall Construction at Edo Castle (石垣普請)

The construction of Edo Castle's magnificent stone walls began in 1604 and lasted through three Tokugawa Shoguns (Ieyasu, Hidetada, Iemitsu).  The Tokugawa utilized most of the daimyo to some extent to build the stone walls of Edo Castle over roughly 30 years. The Western Daimyo tended to get the more labor intensive and more expensive jobs while allies got lighter duties.

Assignments were split into two major types:

Moat Construction (堀方/horikata): Typically, the Eastern daimyo were responsible for digging the trenches, moats and creating the foundation for stone walls.

Stone Wall Construction (石垣方/ishigakikata): Typically the Western Daimyo, were responsible for quarrying the stone and building the walls.  Under the third Shogun Hidetada, this was further broken down to those responsible for stone quarrying (寄方/yosekata) and those building the walls (築方/tsukikata

The image below shows diagrams of parts of the outer moat. The diagram on the left displays assignments for creating the moat foundation by the Horikita daimyo. The image on the right shows those daimyo responsible for creating the stone walls. This section of the outer moat was completed in the third phase of construction (1635-1637). Click the photo to enlarge it for more detail.


Izu quarries3.jpg

Illustration from the stone wall display at Ichigaya Station

Edo stones22.jpg

I imagine a stone wall construction site might have looked like this with stones ready to be piled

The first round of stone wall construction at Edo Castle lasted from about 1604-1606 involving 28 of the Western daimyo. In just over 2 years, the first walls of the Honmaru, Ninomaru, and Sannomaru were completed. Some of these well-known daimyo; including Kato Kiyomasa (Kumamoto), Maeda Toshimitsu (Kanazawa), Mori Hidenari (Hagi),  Ikeda Terumasa (Himeji), Horio Yoshiharu (Matsue), Fukushima Masanori (Hiroshima), among others got very good at building huge stone walls in a short time and went on to build their own impressive castles in the same manner. The Maeda took this concept of dividing up the walls among your subjects to build the vast walls of Kanazawa Castle too. That's why you'll see many kokuin there too.

The photos of the following screens are from the stone wall exhibit at Ichigaya Station in Tokyo. The illustrations depict the construction of stone walls at Sunpu Castle but the concept is the same. Enlarge the photos and look closely to see various scenes of carrying stones and building walls.

Sunpu panel1.jpg

Pulling a very large stone on a sledge through town

Sunpu panel2.jpg

Various scenes carrying smaller stones

Sunpu panel3.jpg

Workmen on the walls, scenes carrying smaller stones, a scene of people carrying baskets of small kuri-ishi (backfill) stones


Stone Quarries (石丁場)

Ishigakikata daimyo were assigned to areas of Izu to quarry the stone, but had to find and lay claim to their specific quarry sites. The stone was cut, partially shaped and then transported to ports along the coast. The stone was shipped by boat from these ports to Edo. Once they arrived in Edo, the stone was offloaded and again transported overland to each daimyo's stockpile which was sometimes their own Edo residences. In fact, the daimyo in charge of gathering stone were not allowed to use stone in building their own residences until they filled their quotas. Throughout this process, the daimyo themselves were responsible for acquiring (building, buying or borrowing) the ports, ships, and locations to stockpile their stone.


Boundary Marker Stones (標識石・境界石)

The stone quarries were very close to each other and you may see several on a single mountain. The individual quarries were were marked off by large boundary marker stones (境界石) indicating the borderline between quarries. These may have been marked with a single large kokuin on a large stone, several stones lined up with kokuin in them, or the name of the daimyo carved. A few large stone with the daimyo's name have been found centrally located in quarries too.

Usami nakoyama quarry28.jpg

羽柴越中守石場
Hashiba Etchu-no-kami Stone Quarry (Hosokawa Tadaoki)
Usami Nakoyama To-no-iri Stone Quarry

Heda quarry35.jpg

鍋島信濃守
Nabeshima Shinano-no-kami
Heda Stone Quarry

Heda quarry38.jpg

これよりにし ほそかわ越中守石場
Here begins the quarry of Hosokawa Etchu-no-kami
Heda Stone Quarry

Maruyama3.jpg

従是東二十八間/水戸殿石場
From here to 28 Kan is the Mito-dono quarry
Maruyama Stone Quarry

Ito futo8.jpg

Mori Kamon kokuin used as a border stone

Futo Stone Quarry

Usami nakoyama quarry36.jpg

Several stones lined up along the entrance Usami Nakoyama To-no-iri Stone Quarry

Stone Splitting (石割り)

Before splitting a stone, dotted lines are carved into the stone to mark how it should be cut. Wedge holes are then carved along the line to prepare the stone for splitting. Since stones are typically split along the dotted lines, it is quite rare to see such a line remaining on any stone. There are a few cases at castles that I've heard of, one stone at the Usami Nakoyama To-no-iri Stone Quarry that looks like a bad split and a few stones at the Heda Stone Quarry with these draft lines.



The actual splitting of the stone used a couple techniques. In the illustration on the left, a block of dried wood was placed in the hole. Water poured into the hole would cause the wood to expand and split the stone. In the second method, metal wedges were hammered into a stone to split it. People who study stone walls often look at the size of these wedge holes/ya-ana to guess how it was split and when. The wood method is thought to be a little older and required larger wedge holes, but obviously both techniques are used throughout the quarries for Edo Castle.

Izu quarries4.jpg

Stone splitting display near Inatori Station

Izu quarries6.jpg

Stone wall display at Ichigaya Station

Izu quarries9.jpg

Stone splitting display near Inatori Station


The illustration below shows how large blocks were cut from the bedrock to be further split and shaped into rectangular corner stones for the stone walls. The photo on the right shows the ruins of almost the exact same scene 400 years later. This site is the only such scene that I've personally found. It'a quite amazing because you can easily imagine how a big block was cut away just like in the illustration. This must have been early in the process of mining a quarry so it is natural that few, if any, other such sites remain.

Izu quarries5.jpg

Stone splitting display near Inatori Station


Transporting Stones (石の運搬)

Stones were transported to the ports pulled on a sled.

Izu quarries7.jpg

Stone splitting display near Inatori Station


If you happen to find what looks like a well worn trail along the edge of a stone quarry, it may have been what's called an ishibikimichi/ 石曳き道 (stone pulling trail) that was used to transport the stone to ports. As mentioned earlier, there were often multiple quarries closely grouped together or on the same mountain. These trails were often shared between the quarries they bordered.

Izu quarries hikimichi.jpg

a road in the mountains near Usami.

Ookawa quarry2.jpg

Ohkawa Yato-no-iri Stone Quarry. The first part of the road is paved but it leads directly back to the center of the quarry with several large cornerstones remaining along it.


In the left photo below you see a map of Izu with some of the main quarry areas highlighted with orange dots. The lighter green shades are areas with good andesite stone. The lines along the coast also indicate the route to Edo. The second photo illustrates loading large cornerstones onto a boat. Only 2 of these large stones could be loaded on a single boat. The large cornerstones are also known as "100 Man Stones" (百人持ち石) because it took a 100 men to move them. At the peak, 3000 boats per day were making the trip twice a month. It may have been easier than transporting stone over land, but it was by no means safe.  Many boats sunk in the process and to this day you can still see stones that were bound for Edo Castle on the bottom of the sea.

Izu quarries2.jpg

Stone wall display near Toranomon Station (Tokyo)

Izu quarries1.jpg

From a display at Ito Kawaguchi Park

Izu quarries8.jpg

From a display at Inatori Station


Kokuin (刻印)

Each daimyo who was assigned to quarry stone was also given a quota based on the size of their domain. As the stones were cut and prepared for shipping to Edo, the stones were marked with the daimyo's sigil or other marking so that when it arrived in Edo the officials could tabulate how much stone was provided and make sure the daimyo met their quotas. These marks, called kokuin, also served to prevent other daimyo from stealing previously cut stones or laying claim to another daimyo's stone at the ports. Quarrying such stone is hard dangerous work. Even if it wasn't sanctioned by the daimyo, it is possible that the workers may have laid claim to another daimyo's stone given the opportunity. I read in one account of the Ohkawa Yato-no-iri Stone Quarry that there were so many injuries that the stream through the quarry was often tinged red with blood. Kokuin are sometimes mistakenly thought to be the kamon (family crest) of a daimyo but that is not always the case. The kokuin may be that of a retainer, it may indicate a specific quarry, or it may be the foreman in charge of the quarry. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to connect a kokuin to a specific daimyo. The same marks were used by different daimyo in different areas and times. The best way to connect a daimyo to a kokuin and specific quarry is actually through historical accounts.

Edo stones11.jpg

Otebori Moat

Edo stones12.jpg

Shimizumon Gate

Edo stones13.jpg

Shimizumon Gate


Markings on the stones of stone walls are often put into one broad category called kokuin, but not all kokuin had the same purpose. In addition to the markings mentioned above, you will also find other markings on stones that were made at the ports or in tabulating quantities, marks used by the builders during construction of the walls, daimyo names, and even symbols or words meant to protect the castle.


Edo stones8.jpg

Shimizubori Moat
There are 2 places along this moat with the same 五目 carved in stone indicating the 5th row of stones from the bottom.

Edo stones10.jpg

Main keep foundation
This star can be seen from the top looking to the inside stonework. The star is a talisman against fire.

Edo stones9.jpg

Babasaki Gate
A similar charm against fire


Edo stones5.jpg

Hirakawa Moat
Obviously writing, but I don't know what it says

Edo stones6.jpg

Across the Hamaguri Moat near the Kikyomon Gate
The stone on the left has writing the indicates the "Awa-no-kami" and one of his retainers (second line)「---阿波守内/小----」but it has been mostly erased

Edo stones7.jpg

南無阿弥陀仏
Buddhist invocation to ward off evil. This location is the "devil gate" direction (northeast) so it is meant to help protect the castle from evil.


Back at the castle, you can see kokuin all over Edo Castle if you know where to look. The first thing to note is that not every stone will have a kokuin. Some have been erased by time and weathering, some were simply not on the outside face of the stone, and some stones were also reshaped on site. Futher, kokuin were intentionally erased from areas of high visibility. You would not want to show favoritism to any one daimyo, especially a tozama daimyo, by prominently displaying his mark for all to see. For that reason, the best places to see kokuin are actually using a zoom lens to look across the moats.  There are also places where the kokuin were hidden by walls and buildings that no longer exist making them more visible today.


Edo stones2.jpg

Sakurada Moat, near Nijubashi

Edo stones3.jpg

Hirakawa moat

Edo stones14.jpg

Daisen Moat - near (Soto) Sakuradamon Gate

At Edo Castle, kokuin tend to be mixed up. There are some areas where you tend to see a lot of the same marks, but rarely do you find a spot that is exclusively one mark. This is something you will see more often at Osaka Castle where the quarrying and building of sections of the stone walls was done by the same daimyo. As mentioned earlier, the walls built under Hidetada as well as repairs and changing of some of the walls at Edo Castle over time led to the kokuin being more generally mixed together. In a few places you can find a section of wall where there is a clear break between one daimyo and another.

???? The below borders are from Edo Castle and Osaka Castle. The Edo Castle one in particular is interesting. We know that the stone walls behind the honmaru around the Kitahnebashi Gate were some of the earlier walls built at Edo Castle so I would surmise that this spot was both quarried and built by the respective daimyo.


Edo stones4.jpg

Hirakawa Moat near the Kitahanebashi

Edo stones19.jpg

Fujimi Yagura foundation

Edo stones16.jpg

Akasaka Mitsuke Gate
You see several different variations of a circle with a small square in the middle and another kokuin on the same stone. The circle and square is the kokuin of the Fukuoka Kuroda (Tadayuki) clan. The variations indicate different retainers.

A final use for kokuin that may sometimes be seen at castles is a mark on the top side of the top stone of a wall. This was also intended to delineate the border between sections of responsibility for wall construction. Unfortuately, you can rarely walk along the top of a wall to see whether there are marks or not! The below photo is of one at Edo Castle. I think I have photos of a couple at Nagoya-jo and Osaka-jo too but have not dug them out yet.


Edo stones17.jpg

Bairinzaka

Edo stones18.jpg

Daisen Moat - near (Soto) Sakuradamon Gate

Edo stones21.jpg

Behind the Ote Rest Area

Visiting Stone Quarries (石丁場を訪ねる)

If you've read this far into this kokuin journey, let's go visit some of the former stone quarries in Izu.

Several years ago, I befriended a retired expert who had a special interest in the stone quarries of Izu and helped to get some documented and protected. I joined him on some travels to survey and/or re-visit some of these sites as well. A very few of these photos were posted to Facebook at the time, but most are seeing the light of day for the first time. The photos are also GPS tagged and I'm providing maps of these photos and quarries for reference purposes only. They are mostly on private land and the owners do not appreciate people walking around their woods without permission (risk and liability claims). Ito City has taken some steps to make a bit of tourism out of the stone quarries around the Usami area. They have developed some hiking trails and maps to get to the sites. There is also a trail around the town where kokuin stones have been intentionally laid out to visit. There are also several small parks up and down the Izu coast where leftover stones have been found or moved for you to visit too. Several of these are documented below, but it is not an exhaustive list.

Exploring these ruins is actually great fun and a much under appreciated part of castle building history. You can really imagine these quarries being an active site. Depending on the site, there are stones in all stages of being cut and formed, including mistakes or incorrectly split stones. You will see stones that were left behind and never carried off to Edo. There are "leavings" (as I call them) which are the leftover bits carved off a stone and have many ya-ana (arrow holes). One of the most fun aspects is to match kokuin from a quarry with kokuin found at Edo Castle. Many of the photos selected above showing kokuin at Edo Castle were intentionally selected because they show kokuin that may be found in the albums of the quarries documented here. Two examples are shown below.

Heda quarry76.jpg

Heda Stone Quarry

Edo stones20.jpg

Shimizu Gate

Usami nakoyama quarry14.jpg

A 'yahazu' design kokuin at the Usami Nakoyama To-no-iri Stone Quarry

Edo stones15.jpg

Toranomon Gate


Most of these sites have no trails or signs so it's up to you to explore. Check each side of a stone and sometimes clean them off to see if there is anything under the fallen leaves or weeds. You could probably spend a full day at any one of these sites. Explore my photos of these quarries below to see what you might find too !



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RohanInTokyoPeasant

6 months ago
Score 1++
An amazing. It's good to read this type of material to round out my knowledge of Japanese. There is so much here I didn't know. Actually ... most of it I didn't know!
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EricShogun

6 months ago
Score 0++
Great! I'm glad it was useful. There is not much info out there on this topic.